NASA Bans Chinese Researchers, Intensifying Race to the Moon: "America First"

 Recently CNN.co.jp reported the following:

ＮＡＳＡ　中国人研究者の活動禁止、月めぐる競争激化　「米国が最初だ」

2025.09.12 Fri posted at 13:10 JST

（ＣＮＮ） 米航空宇宙局（ＮＡＳＡ）は、米国ビザを持つ中国籍の研究者の施設立ち入りやコンピューターなどの利用を禁止していることを明らかにした。宇宙進出をめぐる米中の競争を大幅にエスカレートさせた形だ。中国が有人宇宙船の月面着陸を目指し、月居住の可能性を探る中、トランプ政権は一層警戒感を強めている。

報復を恐れて匿名で取材に応じた２人のＮＡＳＡ職員によると、新しいポリシーは９月５日に導入され、ＮＡＳＡ全体で数百人の科学者や研究者などに影響が及んでいるという。多くは気候科学や宇宙分野の研究に取り組む研究者だった。

ＮＡＳＡ広報は、対象者は１００人に満たないとしている。

ＮＡＳＡのショーン・ダフィー暫定長官は、「月を目指す中国に善意はない。米国が最初に到達し、米国と国際パートナーの平和を守る」とＸ（旧ツイッター）に書き込んだ。

中国人研究者らは、ＮＡＳＡの施設に立ち入ることも、ＮＡＳＡの同僚とのオンライン会議に参加することも、ＮＡＳＡのスーパーコンピューターを利用することもできなくなった。特に気候変動の研究にはスーパーコンピューターが欠かせない。

こうした制限はＮＡＳＡの研究に支障をきたしていると関係者は指摘。研究活動のために渡米して、成果を通じてＮＡＳＡに貢献している若い中国人研究者のキャリアが阻まれかねないと危惧する。

ＮＡＳＡが関係する会合やオンライン会議も制限の対象となる。ＮＡＳＡはただでさえ、大幅な予算カットと人員削減で混乱状態にあり、今回の措置はそうした混乱に一層拍車をかけている。

ＮＡＳＡのベサニー・スティーブンス報道官は１１日、米国ビザを持つ中国人に対する制限について、「我々の活動の安全保障対策を徹底させるため、中国人に対し、施設への立ち入りやサイバーセキュリティーアクセスの制限を含む内部措置を講じた」とＣＮＮに語った。

米中の競争は宇宙進出をめぐっても激化している。

中国は２０３０年までに宇宙飛行士を月面に降り立たせることを目標としている。一方ＮＡＳＡは、２７年半ばまでに再び宇宙飛行士を月に送り込むことを目指す。

ダフィー暫定長官は８月、計画を前倒しして、将来的な定住のため原子力発電所を月面に設置するようＮＡＳＡに指示したと述べて物議をかもした。

ダフィー氏は当時、「我々は月を目指して中国と競争している」と記者団に語り、もし他国に先を越されれば、その国に「立ち入り禁止区域」を設定され、ＮＡＳＡの月面基地計画が妨害されかねないと危機感を示していた。

そうした競争のさなかにあって、ＮＡＳＡは数千人の人員と数十億ドル規模の予算を失う見通しだ。

関係者によると、ＮＡＳＡ職員は少なくとも４０００人がトランプ政権の早期退職勧告に応じた。２６年度予算案では、ＮＡＳＡの予算が全体で２４％削減されている。月面着陸のアルテミス計画予算はほぼ据え置かれているが、科学研究関連予算はほぼ５０％削減される。

Translation

NASA Bans Chinese Researchers, Intensifying Race to the Moon: "America First"

(CNN) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) announced that it was banning Chinese researchers with U.S. visas from entering its facilities and using its computers. This represented a significant escalation of the U.S.-China space race. The Trump administration was increasingly wary as China aimed to land a manned spacecraft on the moon and explored the possibility of lunar habitation.

According to two NASA officials, who spoke on condition of anonymity for fear of retaliation, the new policy was implemented on September 5 and affected hundreds of scientists and researchers across NASA. Many of them were researchers engaged in climate science and space research.

NASA public relations said the policy affected fewer than 100 people.

NASA Interim Administrator Sean Duffy wrote on X (formerly Twitter), "China has no good intentions in its pursuit of the moon. America will be first to arrive; protecting the peace of the United States and its international partners."

Chinese researchers were no longer able to enter NASA facilities, participate in online meetings with NASA colleagues, or use NASA's supercomputers. Supercomputers were particularly essential for climate change research.

Those involved pointed out that these restrictions were hindering NASA research. There was a fear that the restrictions could hinder the careers of young Chinese researchers who traveled to the United States for research and contributed to NASA through their findings.

NASA-related meetings and online conferences would also be subject to restrictions. NASA was already in a state of turmoil due to significant budget cuts and personnel reductions, and these measures had only exacerbated that confusion further.

Regarding restrictions on Chinese nationals with US visas, NASA spokesperson Bethany Stevens told CNN on the 11th, "We have taken internal measures to ensure the security of our activities, including restricting access to our facilities and cybersecurity access for Chinese nationals."

Competition between the US and China was also intensifying over space exploration.

China aimed to land astronauts on the moon by 2030. NASA, meanwhile, aimed to return astronauts to the moon by mid-2027.

Interim Administrator Duffy sparked controversy in August when he said he had ordered NASA to accelerate its plans to build a nuclear power plant on the moon for future settlement.

At the time, Duffy told reporters, "We're racing with China to get to the moon," expressing concern that if another country gets there first, that country could establish "no-go zones" and disrupt NASA's lunar base plans.

Amid this competition, NASA was set to lose thousands of jobs and billions of dollars in its budget.

According to sources, at least 4,000 NASA employees had accepted the Trump administration's early retirement offer. The fiscal year 2026 budget proposal included a 24% cut to NASA's overall budget. While funding for the Artemis moon landing program remained largely unchanged, the budget for scientific research would be cut by almost 50%.

 So, NASA has announced that it is banning Chinese researchers holding U.S. visas from entering its facilities and using its computers. The Trump administration is increasingly wary as China aims to land a manned spacecraft on the moon and explores the possibility of lunar habitation.  Apparently, the US worries that if the Chinese get there first, that country could establish "no-go zones" and disrupt NASA's lunar base plans.

Foreigners' home buying spree in the US sparks growing anxiety and dissatisfaction, with 133 proposed restrictions across the US

 Recently the Nihon Keizai Shimbun on-line reported the following:

米国で外国人が住宅｢爆買い｣　膨らむ不安と不満、全米で133の規制案

(Source: Nikkei)

田中道昭さんの投稿

2025年9月9日 4:26 [会員限定記事]

 【ワシントン=野一色遥花】米国で外国人が購入した中古住宅の件数が前年同期比4割増と急増している。価格高騰で米国人の購入が鈍る中、中国人を中心とした富裕層が好機と捉えている。販売件数全体の2%にとどまるが、米国内で安全保障面での不安と価格上昇への不満が重なり、法律で購入を規制する動きが強まっている。

 

外国人購入者の15%が中国人

2024年4月〜25年3月にかけてのデータを全米不動産協会（NAR）がまとめた。外国人への販売件数は4割増の7万8100戸と10年以来15年ぶりの伸び幅で、全米の中古住宅販売件数の2%を占める。米国では中古住宅が市場の中心で、新築を含めて全販売数の8割以上を占める。

外国人の購入増は価格高騰と住宅ローン金利の高止まりが続き、一般的な収入の米国人が買いにくくなったことが大きい。

7月の中古住宅価格（中央値）は42万2400ドル（約6200万円）と20年7月と比べると4割上昇した。30年物固定住宅ローン金利は3月末ごろ6.65%と、米連邦準備理事会（FRB）による利上げ開始前の21年末の3%程度と比べると2倍の水準だ。

その結果、7月の中古住宅販売件数は401万戸（季節調整済み、年率換算）とピークだった22年1月の643万戸と比べると4割程度減っている。

NARのマット・クリストファーソン氏は「ローン金利が高止まりし国内需要が低迷する中、在庫が増えて外国の富裕層にとって好機となっている」と説明する。

中国人の購入価格は全米中央値の9割増し

外国人購入者のうち、最も多いのが15%を占める中国人だ。カナダ人（14%）、メキシコ人（8%）と続く。中国人購入者は10年ほど前に一時16%（2014〜15年）まで上昇した後、新型コロナウイルス禍の21年には6%に減少したが、勢いを取り戻している。

中国の大手不動産ポータルサイト「居外（ジュワイ）IQI」の創業者兼最高経営責任者（CEO）カシーフ・アンサリ氏は「米国で家を構えることはステータスシンボル」と指摘する。

投資家向け永住権付きビザの取得や子供たちの留学用の滞在目的も多い。不動産仲介業者コンパスのスー・ミャオ氏によると、中国人の購入者は賃貸は外国人の借り手に追加の保証を求めるなど余計な手間や費用がかかるため、買った方が効率的と考えるという。

ただ、米国内では警戒感が高まっている。外国人の購入増が安全保障面での不安に加えて住宅価格上昇の一因とみられているためだ。

特に中国人による住宅購入価格（中央値）は75万9600ドルと国別購入者の中で最も高く、全米の住宅価格（調査した3月時点の中央値、40万3100ドル）を9割上回る。7割はローンを使わず現金で買っている。

NARによると、外国人が都市部で住宅を買う割合は全体の4割で前年より1割増加した。データを遡れる2010年以来過去最高だ。もともと高値で買っているところに、都市部はインフレなどを加味して転売時にさらに高額になりやすい。

 

全米30州で外国人の購入を規制

中華系アメリカ人の会員の多い米非営利団体Committee of 100（百人会）のまとめでは8月20日時点で外国人の不動産保有規制に関わる州レベルの法案が54件可決されている。全米50州のうち半数以上の30州が適用している。

さらに25年だけで133件の規制法案が提案されている。テキサス州では6月に州法が改正された。州知事に不動産保有の規制対象国を指定する権限がゆだねられ、9月1日に施行した。

グリーンバーグ・トラウリグ弁護士事務所によると、新しい州法では対象国出身者で米国の永住権を持っていないなど一定の条件に当てはまれば、居住目的以外の住居や商業施設の保有が禁じられるほか、1年以上の住居・商業施設の賃貸も不可能となる。適用される物件は住宅や商業施設だけでなく、農地や水源など幅広い。政府関係者だけではなく、対象国の一般市民や企業にも制限をかけられる仕組みだ。

一般的な収入の米国人が住宅を買いやすくなると歓迎する見方もある一方、特定の国や地域を指名すれば移民排斥の風潮に便乗した差別にもつながりかねない。

Translation

Foreigners' home buying spree in the US sparks growing anxiety and dissatisfaction, with 133 proposed restrictions across the US

[Washington -  Haruka Noishi] The number of existing homes purchased by foreigners in the US had surged up 40% year-on-year. As rising prices slowed American purchasing, wealthy buyers, primarily Chinese, were seeing this as an opportunity. While they only accounted for 2% of total sales, a combination of security concerns and dissatisfaction with rising prices within the US had led to growing efforts to restrict purchases through legislation.

15% of foreign buyers were Chinese

The National Association of Realtors (NAR) compiled data for April 2024 to March 2025. Sales to foreigners increased 40% to 78,100 units, the largest increase in 15 years since 2010, accounting for 2% of existing home sales nationwide. In the US, existing homes dominated the market, accounting for more than 80% of all sales, including new homes.

The increase in purchases by foreigners was largely due to rising prices and persistently high mortgage interest rates, a major factor was that it had become more difficult for Americans with average incomes to purchase them.

The median price of an existing home in July was $422,400 (approximately JPY 62 million), up 40% from July 2020. The 30-year fixed mortgage rate was 6.65% around the end of March, doubled the level of around 3% at the end of 2021, before the Federal Reserve began raising interest rates.

As a result, the number of existing home sales in July was 4.01 million (seasonally adjusted, annualized), down about 40% from the peak of 6.43 million in January 2022.

Matt Christofferson of the NAR explained that "With mortgage interest rates remaining high and domestic demand sluggish, increasing inventory is creating an opportunity for wealthy foreign buyers."

Chinese buyers' purchase prices were 90% higher than the US median

Chinese buyers made up the largest group of foreign buyers, accounting for 15%, followed by Canadians (14%) and Mexicans (8%). Chinese buyers' share temporarily rose to 16% (2014-2015) about a decade ago, then dropped to 6% in 2021 amid the COVID-19 pandemic, but was now regaining momentum.

Kaseef Ansari, founder and CEO of Juwai IQI, a major Chinese real estate portal, pointed out that "owning a home in the US is a status symbol."

Many investors were aiming at seeking permanent residency visas or to bring their children to study abroad. According to Su Miao (スー・ミャオ) of real estate brokerage Compass, Chinese buyers believed it was more efficient to buy, as renting would involve extra effort and expenses, such as requiring foreign tenants to provide additional guarantees.

However, caution was growing within the US, in addition to security concerns, the increase in foreign buyers was seen as one of the factors behind rising home prices.

In particular, the median home purchase price by Chinese buyers was $759,600, the highest among all countries, 90% higher than the national average ($403,100 as of March). Seventy percent of buyers paid cash without a mortgage.

According to the NAR, foreigners purchased homes in urban areas, accounting for 40% of all purchases, a 10% increase from the previous year. This was the highest since data began in 2010. While homes were already purchased at high prices, in urban areas, properties tended to be even more expensive when resold, taking into account factors such as inflation.

30 States Restricted Foreign Purchases

According to a summary by the Committee of 100, a U.S. nonprofit organization with many Chinese-American members, as of August 20, 54 state-level bills restricting foreign real estate ownership had been passed. Thirty states—more than half of the 50 states—had such bills in place.

Furthermore, 133 restrictive bills had been proposed in 2025 alone. Texas amended its state law in June. State governor was now vested with the authority to designate which countries whose real estate holdings were subject to regulation, and this came into effect on September 1st.

According to the law firm Greenberg Traurig (グリーンバーグ・トラウリグ), the new state laws would prohibit people coming from targeted countries when certain conditions matched, such as not having permanent U.S. residency etc., for them to own residential or commercial properties for purposes other than residence; they were also prohibited from renting residential or commercial properties for more than one year. The applicable properties were broad, including not only residential and commercial properties but also farmland and water sources. The system also applied to not just government officials, but also ordinary citizens and companies from targeted countries.

While some might welcome the move as it could make easier for Americans with average incomes to buy homes, targeting specific countries or regions could lead to discrimination that took advantage of the anti-immigration trends.

              So, the number of existing homes purchased by foreigners in the US has increased. As rising prices have slowed down American purchasing, some wealthy buyers, mainly Chinese, are viewing this as an opportunity to invest in the US properties. As a result, a combination of security concerns and dissatisfaction with rising prices within the US has surfaced and this leads to growing efforts to restrict purchases by some foreigners through legislation. Apparently, the US is still an attractive place in their eyes

美國8月就業市場進一步疲軟

Recently Google News on-line picked up the following:

US jobs market weakens further in August

5 September 2025

Natalie Sherman - BBC News

The US jobs market weakened further in August, raising new fears about the health of the world's largest economy.

Employers added just 22,000 jobs last month, fewer than expected, while the unemployment rate ticked up from 4.2% to 4.3%, according to the Labor Department.

The figures cap a string of shaky data this week on the job market and add to the concerns that spiked last month, when the Labor Department said hiring in May and June had been far weaker than it had initially estimated.

On Friday, the department said its latest estimates showed the US actually lost jobs in June, the first such decline since 2020.

Investors, who had already been betting that the US central bank would respond to the weakening labour market with a cut to interest rates at its meeting this month, said that move was now all but certain.

"The warning bell that rang in the labour market a month ago just got louder," said Olu Sonola, head of US economic research for Fitch Ratings.

US President Donald Trump responded to the signs of slowdown in August by firing the head of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, accusing her, without evidence, of rigging the numbers to make him look bad.

But analysts say the troubles in the job market are partly due to the president's sweeping changes to tariff and immigration policy, which economists have consistently warned would hurt the economy, by raising costs and uncertainty for firms.

His administration has also cut government spending, firing thousands of government workers.

The Labor Department said the federal government shed 15,000 positions last month. Manufacturing and construction firms also reported payroll declines, offsetting gains in health care.

"Four straight months of manufacturing job losses stand out," Mr Sonola said. "It's hard to argue that tariff uncertainty isn't a key driver of this weakness."

The number of jobs created each month has been slowing steadily since the boom that followed the reopening from the pandemic.

But analysts have said the economy only needs to create about 50,000 jobs each month to keep up with population growth - far fewer than it once did - as Trump's crackdown on immigration prompts the stream of new workers that entered the US in recent years to dry up.

Stock markets opened slightly higher following the report, which also showed average hourly pay rising 3.7% over the past year.

In the global bond markets, the rates that investors demand for borrowing dropped sharply, reversing a surge earlier in the week, as confidence grew in a Fed rate cut.

"The initial reaction suggests markets are focused on Fed rate cuts rather than concerns about a cooling economy," said Ellen Zentner, chief economic Strategist for Morgan Stanley Wealth Management.

"Bad news looks like good news, at least this morning."

Speaking to broadcaster CNBC, White House economic adviser Kevin Hasset conceded that the August jobs numbers were "disappointing" but said he expected revisions in future months would present a better picture.

Earlier this week, the government reported that job openings had fallen to the lowest level since 2024, while job seekers outnumbered the posts for the first time since the pandemic.

Claims for unemployment payments also ticked up this week, while Friday's report put the unemployment rate at the highest level since October 2021, although it is still not far from historic lows.

Translation:

美國8月就業市場進一步疲軟

美國8月就業市場進一步疲軟，引發了人們對全球最大經濟體健康狀況的新一輪​​擔憂。

美國勞工部稱，上個月美國新增就業人數僅2.2萬個，低於預期，失業率則從4.2%上升至4.3%。

這些數字揭示了本週就業市場一系列不穩定的數據，加劇了上個月美國勞工部表示5月和6月就業機會遠低於最初預期時所引發的擔憂。

週五，勞工部表示，其最新估計顯示，美國6月實際就業人數減少，這是自2020年以來首次出現此類下降。

先前一直押美國中央銀行注會將在本月會議上降息以應對疲軟的勞動力市場的投資者表示，現在降息幾乎是肯定的事了。

惠譽評級美國經濟研究主管 Olu Sonola 表示： “一個月前勞動力市場敲響的警鐘如今更加響亮了。”

美國總統特朗普回應了8月經濟放緩的跡象，他解雇了美國勞工統計局局長，指責她在沒有證據的情況下操縱數據，令特朗普顏面掃地。

但分析人士表示，就業市場的困境部分源自於總統對關稅和移民政策的全面改革。經濟學家一直警告稱，這些改革將增加企業成本和不確定性，從而損害經濟。

他的政府也削減了政府開支，解雇了數千名政府工作人員。

美國勞工部表示，聯邦政府上個月裁員1.5萬人。製造業和建築業也報告了工資下降，抵消了醫療保健行業的成長。

Sonola 說: 「製造業就業機會連續四個月減少，引人注目」; 「很難否認關稅不確定性不是造成這種疲軟的主要因素」。

自疫情結束後經濟重啟的景氣所帶來的每月新增就業人數, 現一直在慢慢地放緩。

但分析師表示，由於特朗普對移民的打壓, 導致近年來湧入美國的新工人流変得枯竭，美國經濟每月只需創造約5萬個就業機會就能跟上人口成長的步伐 - 這遠低於以往的水平。

報告發佈後，股市小幅開高，報告也顯示，過去一年平均時薪上漲了3.7%。

在全球債券市場，由於對聯儲局會降息的信心增強，投資者對借貸利率的索求顯著調低，扭轉了本週稍早的飆升勢頭。

摩根士丹利財富管理首席經濟策略師 Ellen Zentner 表示： “最初的反應表明，市場關注的是聯儲局降息，而不是對經濟降溫的擔憂。”

“至少在今天上午，壞消息看起來像好是消息。”

白宮經濟顧問 Kevin Hasset 在接受CNBC採訪時承認，8月份的就業數據 “令人失望”，但他表示，預計未來幾個月的修正數據將呈現更佳的前景。

本週早些時候，美國政府報告​​稱，職位空缺數量已降至2024年以來的最低水平，而求職者數量自疫情爆發以來首次超過職位空缺數量。

本周初請失業金人數也有所上升，週五的報告顯示失業率達到2021年10月以來的最高水平，儘管仍然接近歷史的最低點。

       So, the US jobs market weakened further in August, raising new fears about the health of the world's largest economy. A White House economic adviser had conceded that the August jobs numbers were "disappointing" but said he expected revisions in future months would present a better picture. Let’s wait and see what will the jobs market figures be next time.

揭開聽覺奧秘的A. James Hudspeth逝世，享年79歲 (2/2)

Recently The New York Times picked up the following:

A. James Hudspeth, Who Unlocked Mysteries Behind Hearing, Dies at 79 (2/2)

He was pivotal in discovering how sound waves are converted into signals that the brain can perceive as a whisper, a symphony or a thunderclap.

The New York Times -By Jeré Longman

Sept. 5, 2025

(continue)

His 50-year career deciphering the process of hearing began by accident, he said. He was more interested in brain research. But, while he was in graduate school, one of his professors asked him to deliver a paper on hearing and balance.

“I was so amazed that so little was known about hearing, yet it’s so manifestly important,” he said in a 2020 Kavli Prize lecture.

Torsten Wiesel, a Nobel laureate who was Dr. Hudspeth’s graduate faculty adviser at Harvard, described him as impatient with small talk but brilliant and brimming with ideas. He said an interview that he had nominated Dr. Hudspeth for a Nobel Prize three times, including this year, adding, “I hoped he would get the prize before he died.”

In the mid-1970s, while Dr. Hudspeth was at the California Institute of Technology, he and his lab began to explore whether the movement of the bundles atop hair cells created electric signals. A challenge for studying the human cochlea is that it is tiny, fragile and inaccessible, so Dr. Hudspeth studied the dissected inner ear of bullfrogs. Under a microscope, he used a small glass rod to push gently against the tips of hair bundles.

He continued his work at the University of California, San Francisco, in the 1980s. For one experiment, he needed a quiet space so one of his postdoctoral students could conduct extraordinarily sensitive measurements of how far trap doors move when opening to allow ions to flow into the cells and create an electrical signal. (The answer: one ten-thousandth of the width of a human hair.)

So Dr. Hudspeth set up a lab in an abandoned swimming pool in the basement of his office building. Dr. Corey of Harvard said that Dr. Hudspeth had truckloads of cement brought in to fill and stabilize the pool.

“It worked absolutely brilliantly,” Jonathon Howard, his postdoctoral student and now a professor of physics at Yale University, told The Transmitter, an online publication devoted to neuroscience. “We were just absolutely single-mindedly going after it.”

In the latter stages of his career, Dr. Hudspeth and colleagues found a way to keep a sliver of the cochlea of a gerbil functioning outside the body, which was related to his study of potential ways to reverse hearing loss.

Once human hair cells die — from such means as repeated exposure to loud noises, aging, and certain diseases and medications — they do not regenerate. An estimated 1.5 billion people experience some degree of hearing loss, according to the World Health Organization.

Dr. Hudspeth explored — along with many other scientists — possible ways to restore hair cells, which many nonmammalian animals like fish and birds can do. One method involved druglike compounds that release the genetic brake that stops cells from multiplying during development.

Along with his wife, Dr. Hudspeth is survived by a daughter, Ann Hudspeth; a son, James Hudspeth; a grandson; and his brother, Tom.

Just before Dr. Hudspeth died, the Rockefeller University optioned technology regarding promising research into restoring hair cells in mice and rabbits. The technology, developed in Dr. Hudspeth’s lab, has been enhanced by one of his former postdoctoral researchers, Ksenia Gnedeva, now a professor at the University of Southern California.

“If all goes well,” Dr. Gnedeva said in an email, “these compounds will soon be tested in human clinical trials. It pains me deeply that Jim will not be here to see where our work leads.”

(Jeré Longman is a Times reporter on the Obituaries desk who writes the occasional sports-related story.)

Translation

揭開聽覺奧秘的A. James Hudspeth逝世，享年79歲 (2/2)

他在發現聲波如何轉換成大腦能夠感知的訊號例如耳語、交響樂或雷鳴方面發揮了關鍵作用

（繼續）

他表示，自己50年來致力於解讀聽覺過程的職業生涯始於偶然。他原本對大腦研究更有興趣。然而，在研究院期間，一位教授邀請他發表一篇關於聽覺和平衡的論文。

他在2020年 Kavli Prize 的演講中說道: 「我很驚訝，人們對聽覺的了解如此之少，但它卻如此重要」。

諾貝爾獎得主 Torsten Wiesel 曾是 Hudspeth 博士在哈佛大學的研究生導師。Wiesel形容Hudspeth 博士不耐煩閒聊，但才華洋溢，充滿創意。他在訪談中表示，自己曾三度提名 Hudspeth 博士獲得諾貝爾獎，包括今年的提名。他還補充道： “我希望他能在去世前獲獎。”

1970年代中期，Hudspeth 博士在加州理工學院工作時，他和他的實驗室開始探索毛細胞頂端毛束的擺動是否會產生電訊號。研究人類耳蝸的一大挑戰是它是微小、脆弱且難以接近，因此Hudspeth博士研究了牛蛙解剖後的內耳。在顯微鏡下，他用一根細小的玻璃棒輕輕按壓毛束的尖端。 

1980年代，他在加州大學舊金山分校繼續他的研究工作。為了進行一項實驗，他需要一個安靜的空間，以便他的一名博士後學生能夠進行極其靈敏的測量，測量活門打開時移動的距離，從而允許離子流入細胞並產生電信號。 （答案：人類頭髮寬度的萬分之一。）

因此，Hudspeth 博士在他辦公大樓地下室的一個廢棄游泳池裡設立了一個實驗室。哈佛大學的 Corey 博士說，Hudspeth 博士用卡車運送水泥來填充和固定游泳池。

他的博士後學生、現任耶魯大學物理學教授的 Jonathon Howard 告訴專注於神經科學的線上刊物《Transmitter》說: 「它運作非常出色」; 「我們當時一心一意地追求它」。

在職業生涯的後期，Hudspeth 博士和同事找到了一種方法，可以讓沙鼠耳蝸的一小部分在體外保持功能，這與他研究逆轉聽力損失的潛在方法息息相關。

人類的毛細胞一旦死亡 - 例如由於反覆暴露於高噪音、老化以及某些疾病和藥物等原因 - 就無法再生。根據世界衛生組織估計，全球約有15億人患有不同程度的聽力損失。

Hudspeth 博士與許多其他科學家一起探索了修復毛細胞的可能方法，許多非哺乳動物，例如魚類和鳥類，都可以做到這一點。其中一種方法是使用類似藥物的化合物來釋放基因制動器，阻止細胞在成長其間增多。

Hudspeth博士身後留下了妻子、女兒 Ann Hudspeth、兒子 James Hudspeth、孫子和弟弟 Tom。

就在Hudspeth博士去世前不久，洛克斐勒大學選擇了一項相當有前景的研究，用於修復小鼠和兔子的毛細胞。這項技術由 Hudspeth博士的實驗室開發，並由他之前的博士後研究員、現任南加州大學教授的 Ksenia Gnedeva進行了改良。

Gnedeva博士在一封電子郵件中寫道： “如果一切順利，這些化合物將很快在人體臨床試驗中進行測試。Jim不能親眼看到我們的工作會帶來什麼成果，這讓我深感痛心。”

So, Dr. Hudspeth has been pivotal in discovering how sound waves are converted to electrical signals in the inner ear that the brain can perceive as a whisper, a symphony or a thunderclap. Apparent, his research is very crucial to us in understanding how our ears operate.

揭開聽覺奧秘的 A. James Hudspeth 逝世，享年79歲（1/2）

Recently the New York times picked up the following:

A. James Hudspeth, Who Unlocked Mysteries Behind Hearing, Dies at 79 (1/2)

He was pivotal in discovering how sound waves are converted into signals that the brain can perceive as a whisper, a symphony or a thunderclap.

By Jeré Longman

Sept. 5, 2025

Dr. A. James Hudspeth, a neuroscientist at the Rockefeller University in Manhattan who was pivotal in discovering how sound waves are converted in the inner ear to electrical signals that the brain can perceive as a whisper, a symphony or a thunderclap, died on Aug. 16 at his home in Manhattan. He was 79.

His wife, Dr. Ann Maurine Packard, said the cause was glioblastoma, a brain cancer.

Scientists have long understood how sound waves enter the ear canal and cause the eardrum to vibrate. They have also understood how the vibrations travel through the three small bones of the middle ear, then to the cochlea in the inner ear, a tiny organ about the size of a chickpea that is filled with fluid and is shaped like a snail’s shell.

And they have long known that microscopic receptor cells in the cochlea play a role in the process of hearing. But by the time Dr. Hudspeth began his research in the 1970s, it was still unclear how these cells — known as hair cells (the name derives from tufts of cylindrical, hairlike rods known as stereocilia) — transformed the mechanical vibrations of sound waves into nerve impulses that the brain could interpret as, say, a child crying or a dog barking.

Dr. Hudspeth “provided the major framework” for this understanding, the committee that awarded him and two other scientists (Robert Fettiplace and Christine Petit) the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience for their pioneering work on the processes of hearing wrote in its citation in 2018.

Each cochlea contains about 16,000 hair cells. Atop each cell, 20 to 300 of these rods are gathered in a bundle — the shortest to the tallest — in rows that resemble a staircase or a pipe organ. Hair cells line the cochlea, with each tuned to a narrow frequency range that collectively decodes the broad spectrum of tones in every sound.

As sound waves enter the cochlea, the stereocilia rods begin to slide next to one another. Dr. Hudspeth theorized that this motion toward the tallest rods created tension on elastic tethers that pulled open tiny pores — essentially trap doors — on the tips of the stereocilia.

His hunch was supported by another scientist, James Pickles, who discovered that each rod is attached to neighboring rods by an elastic protein filament, a kind of microscopic rubber band or spring.

Dr. Hudspeth revealed that when the trap doors open, positively charged ions of potassium and calcium flood into the cells, creating an electrical signal that is carried by the auditory nerve to the brain.

The opening and closing of the trap doors, Dr. Hudspeth found, happens in microseconds, a speed 1,000 times as fast as that of our other senses. The stereocilia, he said, can create a signal that the brain detects by moving only the width of a water molecule.

He showed that hearing depends not only on speed but also on a built-in amplifier system, which can boost a sound signal by about 1,000-fold and sharpens frequency tuning, making it easier to tell voices apart and understand nuances in speech.

Dr. Hudspeth “was the one who really figured out how hair cells worked,” David Corey, a neuroscientist at Harvard and one of his former graduate students, said in an interview.

Albert James Hudspeth was born on Nov. 9, 1945, in Houston. His father, Chalmers Hudspeth, was a lawyer. His mother, Demaris (De Lange) Hudspeth ran the household.

From an early age, Jim, as he was known to his colleagues, was drawn to the orderliness of nature. He and his brother, Tom, amassed a menagerie at home of 200 animals, including box turtles, toads, raccoons, opossums and armadillos.

He attended Harvard, where he received a bachelor’s degree in biomechanical sciences in 1967, a master’s degree in neuroscience in 1969, a Ph.D. in neuroscience in 1973 and a Doctor of Medicine degree in 1974. He joined the Rockefeller University’s faculty in 1995 and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

(to be continued)

Translation

揭開聽覺奧秘的 A. James Hudspeth 逝世，享年79歲（1/2）

他在發現聲波如何轉換成大腦可以感知為耳語、交響樂或雷鳴的信號方面發揮了關鍵作用

曼哈頓洛克菲勒大學的神經科學家 A. James Hudspeth 博士於8月16日在曼哈頓的家中去世，享年79歲。他在發現聲波如何在內耳轉換成大腦可以感知為耳語、交響樂或雷鳴的電訊號方面發揮了關鍵作用。

他的妻子 Ann Maurine Packard 博士表示，他的死因是腦癌 - 膠質母細胞瘤。

科學家早已了解聲波如何進入耳道並引起耳膜振動。他們也了解振動是如何通過中耳的三塊小骨頭傳遞到內耳的耳蝸的。耳蝸是一個鷹嘴豆大小的微小器官，充滿液體，形狀像蝸牛殼。

科學家們早就知道耳蝸中的微小受體細胞在聽覺過程中發揮作用。但到了1970年代 Hudspeth 博士開始他的研究時，人們仍然不理解清楚這些被稱為毛細胞（毛細胞的名稱源於一簇圓柱形、毛狀的桿狀細胞，稱為立體纖毛）的細胞是如何將聲波的機械振動轉化為大腦可以解讀為例如是孩子哭聲或狗吠聲的神經脈衝。

2018年，Kavli神經科學獎授予了 Hudspeth 博士和另外兩位科學家（Robert Fettiplace 和Christine Petit）。委員會在頒獎詞中寫道，Hudspeth 博士「為這一理解提供了重要的框架」而表彰他們在聽覺過程方面的開創性工作。

每個耳蝸包含約16,000個毛細胞。每個毛細胞頂部，有20到300個桿形細胞聚集成束－從最短到最長－排列成行，形狀像樓梯或管風琴。毛細胞排列在耳蝸內，每個毛細胞都調諧到一個較窄的頻率範圍，共同解碼每個聲音中的廣泛音調。

當聲波進入耳蝸時，立體纖毛桿開始彼此並排滑動。Hudspeth博士推測，這種向最高桿形細胞的移動會在彈性繫繩上產生張力，從而拉開立體纖毛尖端的微小孔隙 - 它本質上是個活門。

另一位科學家 James Pickles 也支持了他的推測。Pickles 發現，每根桿狀細胞都透過一根彈性蛋白絲（一種微型橡皮筋或彈簧）與相鄰的桿狀細胞連接。

Hudspeth 博士透露，當活門打開時，帶正電的鉀離子和鈣離子會湧入細胞，產生電訊號，並透過聽覺神經傳遞到大腦。

Hudspeth 博士發現，活門的開啟和關閉以微秒為單位，速度是我們其他感官的1,000倍。他說，立體纖毛只需移動一個水分子的寬度就能產生大腦所能感知的訊號。

他指出，聽覺不僅取決於速度，還取決於一個內建的擴大機系統，可以將聲音訊號增強約1,000倍，並銳化頻率調較，從而更容易區分聲音並理解言語中的細微差別。

哈佛大學神經學家、Hudspeth 博士以前的研究生之一 David Corey 在一次採訪中說道, Hudspeth博士 “是真正弄清毛細胞工作原理的人” 。

Albert James Hudspeth 於1945年11月9日出生於休士頓。他的父親 Chalmers Hudspeth 是一名律師。母親 Demaris (De Lange) Hudspeth 則負責日常家庭事務。

被同事們都這稱呼為Jim的他從小就被大自然的秩序所吸引。他和弟弟Tom在家裡養了200隻動物，包括箱龜、蟾蜍、浣熊、負鼠和犰狳。

他畢業於哈佛大學，1967年獲得生物力學學士學位，1969年獲得神經科學碩士學位，1979年獲得博士學位。 1973年獲得神經科學博士學位，1974年獲得醫學博士學位。 1995年加入洛克斐勒大學任教，並曾是美國國家科學院院士。

（待續）

從東京到倫敦，債券投資人對財政紀律的擔憂令市場緊張不安

Recently Yahoo News on-line picked up the following:

From Tokyo to London, bond investor fears over fiscal discipline leave markets on edge

Reuters - Yoruk Bahceli and Junko Fujita

Wed, September 3, 2025 at 2:39 a.m. PDT 4 min read

LONDON/TOKYO (Reuters) -A degree of calm settled on the world's biggest bond markets on Wednesday, but concerns about the fiscal health of big economies from Japan to Britain and France kept long-dated borrowing costs pinned near multi-year highs.

Worries about Japan's fiscal position were revived after Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba's close aide said he intended to resign from his post, pushing Japan's 30-year government bond yield to a record high well above 3%.

That came a day after borrowing costs, which set the tone for lending rates for corporates and consumers, rose sharply in France and Britain while sterling tumbled, too.

"The economic reforms needed to really cover increasing debt are lacking, and the capital market sees that," Deutsche Bank chief executive Christian Sewing said at a conference on Wednesday, referring to the selloff in long-dated bonds.

"That's why I always say that the capital market is a good reflection of the political reforms that need to be implemented. So we should take it as a bit of a warning and not just duck away and say that nothing will happen."

A reshuffle of British Prime Minister Keir Starmer's top team of advisers on Monday renewed the focus on fiscal challenges given Britain's high levels of borrowing and slow growth. In France, Prime Minister Francois Bayrou is expected to lose a Sept. 8 confidence vote he called in an attempt to win backing for an unpopular debt-reduction plan.

The U.S. Treasury market, considered the bedrock of the global financial system, meanwhile has also seen pressure from worries about high debt, the impact of tariffs on inflation and concern about the independence of the Federal Reserve.

Britain's 30-year gilt yields briefly touched their highest since 1998 at around 5.75% and were last down 7 basis points on the day as some stability returned to bond markets.

Speaking to a parliamentary committee on Wednesday, Bank of England chief Andrew Bailey said it was important not to put too much emphasis on 30-year borrowing costs as such long-dated bonds are not currently being used to raise funds.

Euro area bond yields fell too, although French 30-year borrowing costs held close to their highest levels since 2009 and German equivalents were near 14-year peaks.

 

PRESSURE EVERYWHERE

Rising yields are a headache for governments that face higher spending needs and already hefty debt-servicing costs, just as they prepare to issue more bonds and face political obstacles to their efforts to get budget deficits down.

Britain said on Wednesday it would deliver its budget on November 26, as investors continue to speculate about tax rises that could dampen economic growth.

U.S. 30-year Treasury yields meanwhile touched the closely watched 5% level that investors reckon hurts risk assets for the first time since mid-July.

When a bond's yield rises, its price falls.

Analysts said that fears the U.S. government may have to give up revenue from tariffs if they are deemed illegal have added to the pressure in the Treasury market.

"The current dynamic is further evidence that investor appetite for ultra-long paper clearly waned, not only from private investors but also from institutional players who typically provide a more stable demand base for this segment," said Dario Messi, head of fixed income research at Julius Baer.

Markets nevertheless calmed down as London trade progressed, with euro zone bond yields last lower on the day. U.S. and UK 30-year yields having retreated from their highs.

A hefty pace of bond sales this week had pressured markets on Tuesday, analysts noted.

Fred Repton, portfolio manager at Neuberger, said Tuesday marked a record day for European bond sales just after investors had ramped up their bets on U.S. Federal Reserve rate cuts.

While that was likely a key driver of Tuesday's selloff, "market participants are again focused on deficits and political risk, and this theme is likely to continue far into the year," he said.

Translation

從東京到倫敦，債券投資人對財政紀律的擔憂令市場緊張不安

倫敦/東京（路透）— 週三，全球最大的幾個債券市場略顯平靜，但對從日本到英國和法國等大型經濟體財政健康狀況的擔憂，導致長期借貸成本維持在多年高點附近。

首相石破茂的親信表示有意辭職，這導致日本30年期公債殖利率升至遠超3%的歷史高位，再次引發了人們對日本財政狀況的擔憂。

此前一天，法國和英國的借貸成本大幅上升，而這借貸成本為企業和消費者的利率奠定基調，英鎊也大幅下跌。

德意志銀行首席執行官 Christian Sewing 週三在一次會議上就長期債券拋售表示： “我們缺乏真正處理不斷增長的債務而所需的經濟改革，資本市場也看到了這一點。”

“這就是為什麼我總是說，資本市場能夠很好地反映需要實施的政治改革。所以我們應該把它當作一個警示，而不是躲避，說什麼都不會發生。”

英國首相 Keir Starmer 的高級顧問團隊週一改組，鑑於英國的高借貸水平和緩慢的增長，人們再次關注財政挑戰。在法國，總理Francois Bayrou 預計將在9月8日的信任投票中落敗，他此前試圖為一項不受歡迎的減債計劃去贏取支持。

同時，被視為全球金融體系基石的美國國債市場也面臨著來自高債務擔憂、關稅對通膨的影響以及對聯邦儲備局獨立性的擔憂的壓力。

英國30年期英國公債殖利率一度觸及1998年以來的最高水平，約為5.75%，當日下跌7個基點，因債券市場有些回穩。

英格蘭銀行行長 Andrew Bailey 週三在國會一委員會發表演說時表示，重要的是不要過度強調30年期借款成本，因為目前此類長期債券並未用於融資。

歐元區公債殖利率也出現下跌，儘管法國30年期借款成本接近2009年以來的最高水平，德國30年期借款成本接近14年來的最高水準。

 

壓力無所不在

殖利率上升對那些面臨更高支出需求, 和面對本已高昂的償債成本的政府來說是一個令人頭疼的問題，而就在這時刻, 他們準備發行更多債券, 並準備去減低預算赤字而面臨政治阻力。

英國週三宣布將於11月26日公佈預算案，投資人仍在猜測英國增稅措施可能抑制經濟成長。

同時，美國30年期公債殖利率觸及備受關注的5%水平，投資人認為這是自7月中旬以來首次觸及該水平，對風險資產構成打擊。

債券收益率上升，價格下跌。

分析師表示，擔心美國政府如果關稅被視為非法，可能不得不放棄相關收入，加劇了美國國債市場的壓力。

Julius Baer固定收益研究主管Dario Messi表示: 「目前的情況進一步證明，投資者對超長期債券的興趣明顯減弱，不僅私人投資者，機構投資者也同樣如此，而機構投資者通常為這一領域提供較穩定的需求基礎」。

不過，隨著倫敦交易的進行，市場趨於平靜，歐元區債券殖利率當日持續走低。美國和英國30年期公債殖利率已從高點回落。

分析師指出，本週債券發行速度之快給週二的市場帶來了壓力。

Neuberger投資組合經理人Fred Repton 表示，週二創下了歐洲債券發行紀錄，而此前投資者加大了對聯儲局會降息的押注。

雖然這可能是周二拋售的主要驅動因素，但他表示: 「市場參與者再次關注赤字和政治風險，而這個主題可能會持續到今年年底」。

So, the U.S. 30-year Treasury yields have touched the closely watched 5% level. Analysts say that fears over the U.S. government may have to give up revenue from tariffs if they are deemed illegal by the court have added to the pressure over the Treasury market. Probable, market participants will continue to focus on deficits and political risk, and this theme is likely to continue until the year end. Apparently, some kind of  economic reforms are needed to deal with the increasing debts in many countries.

New Study Shows Modern Human Brain Chemistry May Have Retained a Competitive Advantage Over Ancient Hominin

 Recently CNN.co.jp reported the following:

現生人類の脳の化学組成、古代の人類に対して競争上の優位を保持か　新研究

2025.08.30 Sat posted at 17:20 JST

 （ＣＮＮ） 現代の人類は進化の生存者であり、世代を重ねるごとに繁栄を続けてきた一方、我々の古代の親戚は絶滅した。我々の脳の化学組成に関する新たな研究によれば、ホモ・サピエンス（現生人類）に特有の酵素が、絶滅した我々の最も近い親戚よりも効率的な水の探知能力を我々に与えた可能性が示唆されている。

約６０万年前、現生人類はネアンデルタール人やデニソワ人を生み出した系統から遺伝的に分岐した。これらは人類の系統樹において現生人類に最も近い親戚だ。分岐後のある時点で、アデニロコハク酸リアーゼ（ＡＤＳＬ）と呼ばれる酵素が現生人類で異なる進化を遂げた。この酵素の４８４個のアミノ酸からなる鎖において、４２９番目の位置にあるアラニンというアミノ酸がバリンに置き換えられた。これは小さな変化だが、現代の人間だけが持つＡＤＳＬの一種が誕生した。

この酵素は、ＤＮＡやＲＮＡの構成要素であるプリン体の生成に不可欠な成分だ。現代人でＡＤＳＬが欠損すると、多動性や攻撃性といった行動異常につながる可能性がある。科学者は、たった一つのアミノ酸の変化が我々の行動にどのような影響を与えるのかを調査した。研究結果は学術誌「米国科学アカデミー紀要（ＰＮＡＳ）」に掲載された。

沖縄科学技術大学院大学（ＯＩＳＴ）のヒト進化ゲノミクスユニットのシァンチュン・ジュ博士は「太古の昔からの小さな遺伝子変化が、我々を人間たらしめる脳の特徴の形成にどのように役立ったかを明らかにすることは非常に興味深い」と述べた。

 

水との親和性

これまでの研究では、現代人の変異したＡＤＳＬによって酵素の安定性が低下してプリン生成の効率が低下することが示されていた。それに比べると、ネアンデルタール人やデニソワ人が持っていたオリジナルのＡＤＳＬは特定のたんぱく質分子の合成をさらに効率的に行える。現生人類では、これらの分子は臓器、特に脳に蓄積する。

これが行動にどう影響するかを知るために、マウスを使った実験が行われた。マウスの一部は、人間のＡＤＳＬを模倣して、効率の低いＡＤＳＬを持つよう遺伝子操作された。

これらの「ヒト化」されたマウスと、改変されていない対照群のマウスを、まず１２日間にわたって徐々に水へのアクセスを制限し、その後、音と光で合図して水を飲めるようにする実験を行った。すると、ヒト型の酵素を持つ雌のマウスは、のどがかわいたときに水が供給される場所を、より頻繁に訪れることがわかった。

科学者は、この効率の低いバージョンのＡＤＳＬは水へのアクセスに肯定的な影響を与え、この重要な資源に対する現生人類の競争力を高めたのではないかと仮説を立てた。

二つ目の調査では、現代人類のゲノムを調べ、人間に特有の酵素を生成するＡＤＳＬ遺伝子に焦点を当てた。

研究では、少なくとも９７%の現代人が持つ遺伝子変異のクラスターを発見した。この変異はＡＤＳＬのＲＮＡ発現効率をさらに低下させ、行動への影響を増幅させる可能性がある。研究によれば、この遺伝子は、進化の過程で人間に有利とされたゲノム領域に位置しており、ＡＤＳＬ発現のこの変化が人間に何らかの利点をもたらした可能性が高いために受け継がれてきたことを示唆しているという。

シカゴ大学の人類遺伝学助教のマーナサ・ラガバン博士は「このような研究を通じて、現代人を独特たらしめる遺伝的変化を特定する段階から、それらの変化がどのように我々の独自性を形作ったのかを理解する段階へと移行しつつあることは、実に刺激的だ」と述べた。ラガバン氏は今回の研究に関与していない。

「この研究は、不安定な環境と限られた資源の中で、我々の祖先がどのようにしてネアンデルタール人やデニソワ人のような同時代の人々に対して優位に立つことができたのかという興味深い可能性を提起している」（ラガバン氏）

ネアンデルタール人のゲノムの全容は２０１０年に初めて解読され、その２年後にはデニソワ人のゲノムも解読された。アフリカやアジア、欧州にひろがる現代人の遺伝子データと比較することで、他のヒト族が絶滅する一方で現代人が成功するのに役立った可能性のある行動を特定している。

ＯＩＳＴのジュ氏は「現代人に起こった多くの変化が、我々の脳の発達と機能に影響を与えているという見方が、この研究によってさらに明確になった」と述べた。「これは、こうした変化を理解し、最終的にはそれらがどのように連携していくかを理解するための一歩になるだろう」

Translation

New Study Shows Modern Human Brain Chemistry May Have Retained a Competitive Advantage Over Ancient Hominin

2025.08.30 Sat Posted at 5:20 PM JST

(CNN) Modern humans were evolutionary survivors, thriving with each generation while our ancient relatives became extinct. A new study of our brain chemistry suggested that an enzyme unique to Homo sapiens (modern humans) may had given us a more efficient water-seeking ability than our closest extinct relatives.

Approximately 600,000 years ago, modern human genetically diverged from the lineage that gave rise to Neanderthals and Denisovans, our closest relatives on the human family tree. At some point after this divergence, an enzyme called adenylosuccinate lyase (ADSL) evolved differently in modern humans. In respect of the enzyme's 484-amino acid chain, the amino acid alanine at position 429 was replaced by valine. This small change resulted in the creation of a type of ADSL unique to modern human.

This enzyme was essential for the production of purines, as the building blocks of DNA and RNA. Deficiency of ADSL in modern human could lead to behavioral abnormalities such as hyperactivity and aggression. Scientists investigated how a single amino acid change might affect our behavior. Their findings were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

Dr. Xiang-Chun Ju of the Human Evolutionary Genomics Unit at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST) said, "It is fascinating to understand how small genetic changes from ancient times helped shape the brain characteristics that define us as human."

Affinity to water

Previous research had shown that the mutated ADSL in modern human would reduce the enzyme's stability, making purine synthesis less efficient. In comparison, the original ADSL possessed by Neanderthals and Denisovans allowed for more efficient synthesis of certain protein molecules. In modern human, these molecules accumulated in organs, particularly the brain.

To understand how this affected behavior, experiments were conducted using mice. Some of the mice were genetically engineered to have a less efficient ADSL, mimicking the human ADSL.

In the experiment the "humanized" mice, along with unmodified control mice, were first gradually deprived of water over a 12-day period, and then were given access to water using sound and light cues. Female mice with the human enzyme were found to visit water sources more frequently when thirsty.

The scientists hypothesized that this less efficient version of ADSL had a positive impact on access to water, this might have increased modern humans' competitiveness for this important resource.

In a second study, the researchers examined the genomes of modern human, focusing on the ADSL gene, which produced an enzyme unique to humans.

The study discovered a cluster of genetic mutations were present in at least 97% of modern humans. This mutation might further reduce the expression efficiency RNA of ADSL, amplifying its behavioral effects. Research suggested that this gene was located in a genomic region that was favorable in humans during evolution, indicating that this change in ADSL expression was likely inherited because it offered some advantage to humans.

" Through studies like this, we're moving from the stage in identifying genetic changes that made modern humans unique to the stage in understanding how those changes shaped our uniqueness, it's exciting " said Dr. Maanasa Raghavan, assistant professor of human genetics at the University of Chicago. Raghavan was not involved in the research.

"This work raises intriguing questions about how our ancestors, in an unstable environment and with limited resources, were able to gain an advantage over contemporaries like Neanderthals and Denisovans," Raghavan said.

The Neanderthal genome was first fully sequenced in 2010, followed two years later by the Denisovan genome. By comparing genetic data from modern humans across Africa, Asia, and Europe, the researchers identified behaviors that might have helped modern humans succeed while other hominin groups became extinct.

OIST's Dr. Ju said, "This study further solidifies the view that many of the changes that have occurred in modern humans are affecting the development and function of our brains"; "This will be a step toward understanding these changes and ultimately how they work together."

              So, modern human are evolutionary survivors and thrive with each generation while our ancient relatives become extinct. A new study suggests that an enzyme unique to Homo sapiens may have given modern human a more efficient water-detecting ability than our closest extinct relatives.

Note:

1. Adenylosuccinate lyase (ADSL) is a crucial enzyme in the de novo purine biosynthesis pathway. It executes two β-elimination reactions: converting adenylosuccinate into AMP (adenosine monophosphate) and fumarate, and likewise transforming SAICAR (succinylaminoimidazole carboxamide ribotide) into AICAR (aminoimidazole carboxamide ribotide) and fumarate. (ChatGPT)

2. Gene expression is the process by which information encoded in a gene is used to produce a functional product—this can be messenger RNA (mRNA), other functional RNA molecules (like tRNA or lncRNA), or proteins. (ChatGPT)

3. A genomic region refers to any defined segment of the genome—typically specified by its chromosomal location (e.g., chromosome number, start and end positions). This could encompass one or more genes, regulatory elements, repeat sequences, and more. (ChatGPT)

揭開我們祖先直立行走的基因（2/2）

Recently the NY Times picked up the following:

Uncovering the Genes That Let Our Ancestors Walk Upright (2/2)

(Source: The NYT)

A new study reveals some of the crucial molecular steps on the path to bipedalism.

Origins - By Carl Zimmer who covers news about science for The Times and writes the Origins column.

Aug. 27, 2025

(continue)

Dr. Senevirathne and her colleagues found that primates develop the ilium in much the same way mice do. Two tiny rods of cartilage take shape on either side of the spine and parallel to it. The rods grow and fuse to the spine, and bone cells replace the cartilage.

Dr. Senevirathne and her colleagues figured that the human ilium had evolved from this ancient blueprint. They expected that in a human embryo each ilium would start as a rod of cartilage parallel to the spine; eventually it would stop growing in that direction and expand forward.

“Lo and behold, that’s not the case,” Dr. Capellini said. “It’s not a stepwise process. It’s actually a complete flip.”

The human ilium, the scientists were surprised to discover, starts as a rod perpendicular to the spine; one end points forward toward the belly, and the other points toward the back. The cartilage rod retains this orientation as it grows into the final shape of the ilium.

“That was really striking to us,” Dr. Capellini said. “Nowhere in the human body do you find a place where humans have just changed the way we grow altogether.”

Just as strikingly, Dr. Capellini and his colleagues found, our ilium employs the same network of genes that are active in ilium cells in mice; they just work differently.

In human embryos, ilium cells turn the genes on and off in a new pattern in response to molecules released by neighboring cells. The result is a rod of cartilage forming in a new direction.

Dr. Berthelot said that this hypothesis made sense. Other researchers have discovered that the evolution of other parts of the skeleton was driven by similar changes to existing genes. “There are not so many ways that you can change the shape of a bone,” she said.

Dr. Capellini and his colleagues argue that this flip was crucial to the evolution of bipedalism. It allowed early human ancestors to grow a new kind of pelvis that supported muscles strong enough for walking upright.

But the new study also suggests that the ilium underwent a second major change millions of years later, when humans evolved big brains. The scientists discovered that the ilium is slow to switch from cartilage to bone, lagging about 15 weeks behind the rest of the skeleton. “It’s a unique, radical shift,” Dr. Capellini said.

Dr. Capellini suspects that this shift occurred as the brains of early humans expanded about a million years ago. While a big brain likely boosted our ancestors’ mental powers, it also created new risks. The large heads of babies could get stuck in the birth canal. Natural selection favored new curves on the ilium that gave human mothers a rounder birth canal, which made deliveries easier.

Dr. Capellini’s team is eager to continue their research, to better understand the history of the pelvis and to learn how its evolution in humans made us vulnerable to certain disorders. But in May the Trump administration terminated billions of dollars of funding to Harvard, including the grant that supported the pelvis research. At the time, Dr. Capellini and his colleagues were only two years into a five-year project.

“We are all wondering what would have come next had we not lost this funding,” Dr. Capellini said.

Translation

揭開我們祖先直立行走的基因（2/2）

（繼續）

Senevirathne 博士和她的同事發現，靈長類動物的髂骨發育方式與小鼠非常相似。兩根細小的軟骨棒在脊椎兩側形成，並與其平行。這些軟骨棒生長並與脊椎融合，最終被骨細胞所取代。

Senevirathne 博士和她的同事認為，人類的髂骨正是從這古老藍圖演化而來的。他們原本預計，在人類胚胎中，每根髂骨最初都是一根與脊柱平行的軟骨棒；最終它會停止沿著該方向生長，並向前擴展。

Capellini 博士說: 「呵, 看看啊，事實並非如此」; 「這不是一個循序漸進的過程。實際上，這是一個完全的顛倒」。

科學家驚訝地發現，人類的髂骨原本是一根垂直於脊椎的軟骨棒；一端指向前方腹部，另一端指向背部。軟骨棒在最終生長成髂骨形狀的過程中，會保持這種方向。

Capellini博士說: 「這真的令我們非常震驚」;「在人體中，你找不到任何一個部位，會完全改變人類的共同生長方式」。

Capellini博士和他的同事發現，同樣令人驚訝的是，我們的髂骨所使用的基因網絡與小鼠髂骨細胞中活躍的基因網絡相同；它們只是運作方式不同。

在人類胚胎中，髂骨細胞會回應鄰近細胞釋放的分子，以新的模式開啟和關閉基因。結果是軟骨棒朝著新的方向形成。

Berthelot博士表示，這個假設是有道理的。其他研究人員發現，骨骼其他部分的演化也是由現有基因的類似變化所驅動的。她說: 「改變骨骼形狀的方法並不多」。

Capellini博士和他的同事認為，這種轉變對雙足動物的演化至關重要。它使得早期人類祖先能夠發育出一種新型的骨盆，支撐著足以直立行走的肌肉。

但這項新研究也表明，髂骨在數百萬年後經歷了第二次重大變化，當時人類進化出了更大的大腦。科學家發現，髂骨從軟骨到骨骼的轉變過程較為緩慢，比骨骼的其他部分晚了約15週。Capellini 博士說: 「這是一種獨特而徹底的轉變」。

Capellini博士推測，這種轉變發生在大約一百萬年前早期人類大腦擴張的過程中。雖然較大的大腦可能增強了我們祖先的智力，但也帶來了新的風險。嬰兒的大頭可能會卡在產道裡。自然選擇有利於髂骨呈現新的曲線，使人類母親的產道更圓潤，更容易分娩。

Capellini博士的團隊渴望繼續他們的研究，以便更好地了解骨盆的歷史，並探討其在人類中的進化如何使我們更容易患上某些不正常毛病。但今年5月，特朗普政府終止了對哈佛大學的數十億美元資助，其中包括支持骨盆研究的撥款。當時，Capellini博士和他的同事們才完成了為期五年的計劃的兩年。

Capellini博士說: 「我們都在想，如果我們沒有失去這筆資金，接下來會做些什麼」。

              So, scientists have suggested that our early ancestors became bipeds as old genes started doing new things. Some genes became active in novel places in the human embryo, while others turned on and off at different times. But in May the Trump administration terminated billions of dollars of funding to Harvard, including the grant that supported the pelvis research. It is a pity if this research will be stopped due to lack of funding. Apparent, apart from economic power and military might, leading the world in the field of scientific research is also a factor that makes the Americans great.

Note:

1. Natural selection (自然選擇)is a fundamental concept in evolutionary biology that describes the process by which individuals with favorable traits are more likely to reproduce, leading to the gradual evolution of species.